In the third posting of the series, words were shown to be eternal
entities. According to the philosophy of pUrva mImAmsA (PM), words are "used" in a sentence to "convey" meaning, just as one "uses" a vehicle to "convey" passengers. We can easily use the same PM arguments to show that sentences are eternal, since sentences are wholly composed of words (in a particular sequence). The meaning of a sentence can also be deduced when given the meanings of individual words. But sentences have a property that words do not possess: truth-value. Sentences can be either TRUE or FALSE, and it is necessary to consider only the former kind in our quest for knowledge of dharma. Therefore, from the ontology of words, we come to the epistemology of sentences. All that remains to be shown is: THE VEDIC STATEMENTS DO NOT CONTAIN A FALSITY (REGARDING DHARMA). This will accomplished in the remaining sUtras of the first pAda of the first adhyAya of Jaimini's pUrva mImAmsA sUtras (JPMS). The gist of the argument is as follows: In JPMS 1.1.5, it was said that words were "self-sufficient in authority", which means that a sentence is implicitly assumed true (or "authoritative") unless it contains an error. In the case of statements which contain words denoting objects that can be known by sense-experience or inference, we can verify their truth or falsehood from the results of an experiment. But dharma was shown to be outside the field of sense-experience/inference, so any text that deals with dharma will necessarily have to deal with objects outside the range of sense-experience/inference. Since all human experience lies solely within the range of the senses, any human can only speak of objects lying within his/her own field of sense-experience. If a person claims to have *composed* a text that deals with dharma, it is highly suspect, as it will undoubtedly contain errors in the discussion of dharma. The primary way to ensure that the text is devoid of error regarding dharma is to ensure that it is not a product of human authorship. Then the mImAmsaka's claim becomes that the Veda is not a human product at all, so this secures the Veda against all objections concerning knowledge of dharma. Since there is no means of knowing dharma other than an unauthored text that deals with dharma, the Veda reigns supreme in dharmic matters. The JPMS does not "prove" the unauthoredness of the Veda, instead it is a claim of the mImAmsaka. Now, since it cannot be *proven* that the Vedas are authored, the assumption remains that the Veda is an unauthored text. Continuing with the first pAda of the first adhyAya of JPMS: --- JPMS 1.1.24 utpattau vaa avachanAH syuH arthasya atannimittatvAt.h . "Even though [words and meanings] are eternal, [sentences] would remain inexpressive because [the meaning of the sentence] does not depend upon [the meaning of the words]." Commentary: pUrvapaksha: Granted that word and meaning are eternal. How does this prove that the Vedas are trustworthy regarding dharma? Since the meaning of a sentence is different from the meaning of individual words, and we have only proven the eternality of words, we must reject Vedic injunction. JPMS 1.1.25 tadbhUtaanaam.h kriyaarthena samaamnaayaH arthasya tannimittatvaat.h . "[In a sentence] all words denoting things are in close juxtaposition with the word expressive of action; and therefore the meaning of the sentence is dependent upon the meaning of words composing it." Commentary: In answer to the previous sUtra, there is nothing to prove that the sentence has any meaning other than that afforded by its component words. For example, we find that the sentence "agnihotraanjuhuyaat svargakAmaH" expressive of agnihotra sacrifice and also the word expressive of desiring heaven; the word juhuyaat denotes the action of offering. The meaning is that "one desirous of heaven should perform agnihotra", which is nothing more than the denotations of the words linked together. Hence when the word and its meaning are eternal, sentences formed by these words is also eternal. Thus the eternality of sentences having been established, there is nothing incongrous about the view that the Veda is trustworthy regarding dharma. JPMS 1.1.26 loke sanniyamaat.h prayoga sannikarshhaH . "Just as we find restriction in ordinary parlance, it follows that [in the Veda also] there would be a similar explanation for the use [of sentences]." Commentary: In ordinary parlance, we find that the meaning of a sentence can be extracted only when the meaning of its individual words is comprehended; from this analogy it would be safe to assume that the meaning of a sentence depends upon the meaning of individual words. JPMS 1.1.27 vedaan.h cha eke sannikarshham.h purushhAkhyAH . "[According to some] the Vedas are the work of a human author." Commentary: First pUrvapaksha: The Veda has a human author, because we find various sections named after men. e.g. 'KAThaka' is named after 'KaTha', 'PaippalAda' after 'PippalAda', etc. which indicates that the sections were composed by KaTha and PippalAda respectively. JPMS 1.1.28 anitya darshanaat.h cha . "Also because we find [in the Veda, the mention of many] non-eternal entities." Commentary: Second pUrvapaksha: We find statements such as 'auddAlakiH akAmayata' or 'Auddalaki desired', wherein persons and events are mentioned that cannot be eternal, therefore they must be a human composition. JPMS 1.1.29 uktam.h tu shabda pUrvatvam.h . "But the eternality of the word has already been established." Commentary: Arguments in support of the eternality of all words in general (and the Veda in specific) have already been established. All that is necessary, therefore, is to answer the objections in sUtras 27-28. JPMS 1.1.30 AkhyA pravachanAt.h . "The name [of Vedic sections] is based upon exceptionally excellent study and teaching [of that particular person]." Commentary: In reply to sUtra 27, we say that the Vedic section KAThaka is named after KaTha who had made a special study of that section, not that it was composed by that person. JPMS 1.1.31 parantu shruti saamaanya maatram.h . "The other is only a similarity of sounds." Commentary: Replying to sUtra 28, there is nothing to show that the word as found in the Veda was actually the name of a person; it is in fact nothing more than a chance resemblance of sounds; the word as found in the Veda has since then been borne as the name of a certain person; that does not show that in the Veda the word must be regarded as a proper name. It may be in a totally different sense, for instance, the word 'pravAhana' may mean only the 'excellent carrier'. JPMS 1.1.32 kR^ite vaa viniyogaH syAn.h karmaNaH saMbandhAt.h . "[Apparently absurd Vedic statements] may be regarded as inducements towards certain actions; because of the relationship or connection [of those sentences] with actions." Commentary: pUrvapaksha: The Veda is untrustworthy because it contains absurd statements such as 'the cows sat at the sacrifice', 'the trees performed the sacrifice', and so forth. siddhAnta: All these sentences are found in the section dealing with a certain sacrifice. In praise of this sacrifice, it is declared that so excellent and desirable is the sacrifice, that even inanimate objects such as trees were induced to perform it. Therefore it is only natural that men should engage in it. Thus then, the Veda, not being the work of a human author - whereby it is free from all discrepencies consequent upon authorship - and there being nothing in the text of the Veda itself that shakes it authority, it must be admitted that it is trustworthy in all matters relating dharma. --- Notes:- It has been shown that the Veda is a source of dharma since it is unauthored. But can this claim not be made of any scripture - specifically the Buddhist ones? The chief pUrvapakshin of kUmArila is the Buddhist, and it is especially interesting and important to see how he handles such objections from them. For this, it is necessary to learn some history of the relationship between the two religions. PM and Buddhism --------------- During the time of the Buddha, there may not have been much conflict between Buddhism and Hinduism. In fact, according to the Buddhist scriptures, upon Buddha's death and subsequent cremation, a Brahmin named Drona took care of the remains. But a few centuries later, Buddhists began to coax kings to divert funds away from Vedic scholarship and towards Buddhist causes and propaganda. This angered KumArila [1], and his response was to study the Buddhist scriptures and challenge the Buddhists to a debate on dharma. Vedic tradition has it that KumArila won the debate, which is highly likely, given that KumArila was well-read in Buddhism and was aware of all the weaknesses in the Buddhist scriptures on dharma. The Buddhist theory of dharma basically proceeds in this manner, "Buddha was omniscient; he understood the human condition and the transitory nature of worldly objects. He composed a scripture on dharma so that it may benefit humans." There are two problems with this theory. For one thing, it is impossible to prove that someone who lived long ago in a far-off place was omniscient. Besides, the Buddhist also claims that just as all worldly pleasures/pains are transient entities, so too WORDS ARE TRANSIENT ENTITIES. If words are transient entities that are subject to change, how is it that the Buddhist teachings on dharma that were created long ago are still valid to this day? Who knows if the words have not changed, and are now teaching adharma (vice)? It is best to let KumArila speak for himself, since his commentary is very revealing and is of great historical interest [2]: "pUrvapaksha: We can prove the eternality of the Bauddha scriptures by means of the same arguments that have been brought forward to prove the eternality of the Veda. As in the Vedas, so in these scriptures also, their authority is self-sufficient, because of their being perfectly expressive (and comprehensible) assertions; as we have no doubts as to their meanings; nor have we any mistaken ideas about them. And being, like the Vedas, without a human author, they are free from from all discrepancies consequent upon origin; because, as in the Vedas, so in these scriptures also, the possibility of a human author is absolutely denied. As for the name "Buddha's assertion", as applied to these scriptures, it only shows that they were explained (and not composed) by the Buddha, or that it was Buddha who saw (or found out) these scriptures; exactly as the names KAThaka, Angirasa, and the like are applied to certain recensions of the Veda... ... "siddhAnta: ...the Bauddhas find themselves unable to set aside the well-established and unimpeachable authoritative character of the Veda...they lose their heart by having to fall back upon the device of repeating the arguments of the opponent; and having no reasons of their own to bring forward, they say 'our scriptures are eternal' - forgetting in this all their own former declarations, and only apishly imitating the assertion of his opponent; and this action of theirs is exactly like that of the ignorant bridegroom, who was asked by his father-in-law what his gotra was, but not knowing what it was he said 'my gotra is the same as yours' (not knowing that this would make his marriage impossible)... "And when taunted by the mImAmsaka on the point of this argument belonging to the mImAmsaka, and not to the Bauddhas, they turn round and say - 'It is our argument, stolen by the mImAmsaka.' And certainly, if one were to shamelessly continue to bring forward such meaningless arguments, thereby seeking to deceive other people, he could never lose his point! "But by asserting the eternality of their scriptures, in imitation of the Veda, the Bauddhas give up their well-known theory of the momentary character of all things (including words). The Buddha has laid down the momentary character of all things that are brought into existence, such a text of the Bauddhas being 'All samskAras (impressions) are momentary; and how can impermanent things have any action? Barring the two non-entities (destruction and void), all that is cognisable is a product and is momentary.' "For certainly, if the weaver took up only the threads, and threw away the shuttle, when proceeding to weave a cloth, he would be striking with his fist at the sky. So then, the eternality of words - which is the staple wood on which the whole fabric of the eternality of scriptures stands - having been burnt (denied, at least by the Bauddha) by means of the fire of fallacious arguments, it becomes impossible for the Bauddha to rear up the fabric anew (in regard to his own scriptures). "...hence the assertion 'this dharma-scripture of the Bauddha is eternal' comes to be absolutely meaningless. Specially as that which is momentarily disappearing can never be pointed out or spoken of as 'this'; and hence it becomes all the more impossible for it to be spoken of as 'eternal'. Thus then, there being no chance for the eternality of the scriptures of those who hold the words to be transient, and it being impossible for human assertions, treating of transcendental subjects, to be accepted as 'scriptures of action', the authority of the Bauddha scriptures (in regard to dharma) is denied, on the ground of 'asanniyama' - the meaning of this expression in this case being 'the niyama or acceptance, of assattva or transient character (of all objects in general, and of words in particular).' " ------- "Other writers have also explained this concept of apaurusheyatva. Sayanacharya's bhAShya-bhUmika to the samhitAs and Dayananda Saraswati's RgVeda Bhashya bhumika can be referred in this regard. However, they do not anticipate all the objections. They take up merely the objection of Rishi being the actual author (which is actually raised and answered in the mImAmsA sutras). Moreover, they concentrate on the 'eternality' (nityatva) aspect of the vedas. It is only Srimad Anandatirtha who expounds the apaurusheyatva of vedas (Notice that apaurusheyatva directly implies flawlessness, but eternality does so indirectly and through aparusheyatva), considers all other objections and answers them convincingly." I will once again let KumArila speak for himself [3]: "As a rule, the chance of discrepancies in an assertion, depends upon the speaker; and in certain places the absence thereof (i.e. of discrepancies) is due to its having a faultless speaker; because the discrepancies, removed by his good qualities, cannot possibly attach to his word. Or again, in the absence of any speaker, there could be no discrepancies, as these would have no substratum (to inhere in)...Thus then the authoritativeness of the Veda being independent of a speaker, your adoration of its Author is entirely out of place. For, such adoration could be possible only if you assume the Veda to be devoid of authority." Ontology of words-->Epistemology of sentences-->Unauthoredness of Veda
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